Microscopic research in 1664

Excerpts from: MICROGRAPHIA: OR SOME Physiological Descriptions OF MINUTE BODIES MADE BY MAGNIFYING GLASSES WITH OBSERVATIONS and INQUIRIES thereupon. By R. HOOKE, Fellow of the ROYAL SOCIETY.
Non possis oculo quantum contendere Linceus,
Non tamen idcirco contemnas Lippus inungi. Horat. Ep. lib. 1.LONDON, Printed by Jo. Martyn, and Ja. Allestry, Printers to the ROYAL SOCIETY, and are to be sold at their Shop at the Bell in S. Paul's Church-yard. M DC LX V.

TO THE KING.
SIR,

I Do here most humbly lay this small Present at Your Majesties Royal feet. And though it comes accompany'd with two disadvantages, the meanness of the Author, and of the Subject; yet in both I am incouraged by the greatness of your Mercy and your Knowledge. By the one I am taught, that you can forgive the most presumptuous Offendors: And by the other, that you will not esteem the least work of Nature, or Art, unworthy your Observation. Amidst the many felicities that have accompani'd your Majesties happy Restauration and Government, it is none of the least considerable that Philosophy and Experimental Learning have prosper'd under your Royal Patronage. And as the calm prosperity of your Reign has given us the leisure to follow these Studies of quiet and retirement, so it is just, that the Fruits of them should, by way of acknowledgement, be return'd to your Majesty. There are, Sir, several other of your Subjects, of your Royal Society, now busie about Nobler matters: The Improvement of Manufactures and Agriculture, the Increase of Commerce, the Advantage of Navigation: In all which they are assisted by your Majesties Incouragement and Example. Amidst all those greater Designs, I here presume to bring in that which is more proportionable to the smalness of my Abilities, and to offer some of the least of all visible things, to that Mighty King, that has establisht an Empire over the best of all Invisible things of this World, the Minds of Men.

Your Majesties most humble and most obedient Subject and Servant,
ROBERT HOOKE.
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From hence the World may be assisted with variety of Inventions, new matter for Sciences may be collected, the old improv'd, and their rust rubb'd away; and as it is by the benefit of Senses that we receive all our Skill in the works of Nature, so they also may be wonderfully benefited by it, and may be guided to an easier and more exact performance of their Offices; 'tis not unlikely, but that we may find out wherein our Senses are deficient, and as easily find wayes of repairing them.
The Indeavours of Skilful men have been most conversant about the assistance of the Eye, and many noble Productions have followed upon it; and from hence we may conclude, that there it a way open'd for advancing the operations, not only of all the other Senses, but even of the Eye it self; that which has been already done ought not to content us, but rather to incourage us to proceed further, and to attempt greater things in the same, and different wayes.
'Tis not unlikely, but that there may be yet invented several other helps for the eye, at much exceeding those already found, as those do the bare eye, such as by which we may perhaps be able to discover living Creatures in the Moon, or other Planets, the figures of the compounding Particles of matter, and the particular Schematisms and Textures of Bodies.
And as Glasses have highly promoted our seeing, so 'tis not improbable, but that there may be found many Mechanical Inventions to improve our other Senses, of hearing, smelling, tasting, touching. 'Tis not impossible to hear a whisper a furlongs distance, it having been already done; and perhaps the nature of the thing would not make it more impossible, though that furlong should be ten times multiply'd. And though some famous Authors have affirm'd it impossible to hear through the thinnest plate of Muscovy-glass; yet I know a way, by which 'tis easie enough to hear one speak through a wall a yard thick. It has not been yet thoroughly examin'd, how far Otocousticons may be improv'd, nor what other wayes there may be of quickning our hearing, or conveying sound through other bodies then the Air: for that that it not the only medium, I can assure the Reader, that I have, by the help of a distended wire, propagated the sound to a very considerable distance in an instant, or with as seemingly quick a motion as that of light, at least, incomparably swifter then that, which at the same time was propagated through the Air; and this not only in a straight line, or direct, but in one bended in many angles.
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[Click on images to enlarge]
First, for Microscopes (where the Object we view is near and within our power) the best way of making it appear bright in the Glass, is to cast a great quantity of light on it by means of convex glasses, for thereby, though the aperture be very small, yet there will throng in through it such multitudes, that an Object will by this means indure to be magnifi'd as much again as it would be without it. The way for doing which is this. I make choice of some Room that has only one window open to the South, and at about three or four foot distance from this Window, on a Table, I place my Microscope, and then so place either a round Globe of Water, or a very deep clear plano convex Glass (whose convex side is turn'd towards the Window) that there is a great quantity of Rayes collected and thrown upon the Object: Or if the Sun shine, I place a small piece of oyly Paper very near the Object, between that and the light; then with a good large Burning-Glass I so collect and throw the Rayes on the Paper, that there may be a very great quantity of light pass through it to the Object; yet I so proportion that light, that it may not singe or burn the Paper. Instead of which Paper there may be made use of a small piece of Looking-glass plate, one of whose sides is made rough by being rubb'd on a flat Tool with very find sand, this will, if the heat be leisurely cast on it, indure a much greater degree of heat, and consequently very much augment a convenient light. By all which means the light of the Sun, or of a Window, may be so cast on an Object, as to make it twice as light as it would otherwise be without it, and that without any inconvenience of glaring, which the immediate light of the Sun is very apt to create in most Objects; for by this means the light is so equally diffused, that all parts are alike inlightned; but when the immediate light of the Sun falls on it, the reflexions from some few parts are so vivid, that they drown the appearance of all the other, and are themselves also, by reason of the inequality of light, indistinct, and appear only radiant spots.
But because the light of the Sun, and also that of a Window, is in a continual variation, and so many Objects cannot be view'd long enough by them to be throughly examin'd; besides that, oftentimes the Weather is so dark and cloudy, that for many dayes together nothing can be view'd: And because also there are many Objects to be met with in the night, which cannot so conveniently be kept perhaps till the day, therefore to procure and cast a sufficient quantity of light on an Object in the night, I thought of, and often used this, Expedient.
I procur'd me a small Pedestal, such as is describ'd in the fifth Figure of the first Scheme on the small Pillar AB, of which were two movable Armes CD, which by means of the Screws EF, I could fix in any part of the Pillar; on the undermost of these I plac'd a pretty large Globe of Glass G, fill'd with exceeding clear Brine, stopt, inverted, and fixt in the manner visible in the Figure; out of the side of which Arm proceeded another Arm H, with many joynts; to the end of which was fastned a deep plain Convex glass I, which by means of this Arm could be moved too and fro, and fixt in any posture. On the upper Arm was placed a small Lamp K, which could be to mov'd upon the end of the Arm, as to be set in a fit posture to give light through the Ball: By means of this Instrument duly plac'd, as is exprest in the Figure, with the small flame of a Lamp may be cast as great and convenient a light on the Object as it will well indure; and being always constant, and to be had at any time, I found most proper for drawing the representations of those small Objects I had occasion to observe.
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Observ. I. Of the Point of a sharp small Needle.
As in Geometry, the most natural way of beginning is from a Mathematical point; so is the same method in Observations and Natural history the most genuine, simple, and instructive. We must first endevour to make letters, and draw single strokes true, before we venture to write whole Sentences, or to draw large Pictures. And in Physical Enquiries, we must endevour to follow Nature in the more plain and easie ways she treads in the most simple and uncompounded bodies, to trace her steps, and be acquainted with her manner of walking there, before we venture our selves into the multitude of meanders she has in bodies of a more complicated nature; lest, being unable to distinguish and judge of our way, we quickly lose both Nature our Guide, and our selves too, and are left to wander in the labyrinth of groundless opinions; wanting both judgment, that light, and experience, that clew, which should direct our proceedings.
We will begin these our Inquiries therefore with the Observations of Bodies of the most simple nature first, and so gradually proceed to those of a more compounded one. In prosecution of which method, we shall begin with a Physical point; of which kind the Point of a Needle is commonly reckon'd for one; and is indeed, for the most part, made so sharp, that the naked eye cannot distinguish any parts of it: It very easily pierces, and makes its way through all kind of bodies softer then it self: But if view'd with a very good Microscope, we may find that the top of a Needle (though as to the sense very sharp) appears a broad, blunt, and very irregular end; not resembling a Cone, as is imagin'd, but onely a piece of a tapering body, with a great part of the top remov'd, or deficient. The Points of Pins are yet more blunt, and the Points of the most curious Mathematical Instruments do very seldome arrive at so great a sharpness; how much therefore can be built upon demonstrations made onely by the productions of the Ruler and Compasses, he will be better able to consider that shall but view those points and lines with a Microscope.
Now though this point be commonly accounted the sharpest (whence when we would express the sharpness of a point the most superlatively, we say, As sharp as a Needle) yet the Microscope can afford us hundreds of Instances of Points many thousand times sharper: such as those of the hairs, and bristles, and claws of multitudes of Insects; the thorns, or crooks, or hairs of leaves, and other small vegetables; nay, the ends of the stiriæ or small parallelipipeds of Amianthus, and alumen plumosum; of many of which, though the Points are so sharp as not to be visible, though view'd with a Microscope (which magnifies the Object, in bulk, above a million of times) yet I doubt not, but were we able practically to make Microscopes according to the theory of them, we might find hills, and dales, and pores, and a sufficient bredth, or expansion, to give all those parts elbow-room, even in the blunt top of the very Point of any of these so very sharp bodies. For certainly the quantity or extension of any body may be Divisible in infinitum, though perhaps not the matter.
But to proceed: The Image we have here exhibited in the first Figure, was the top of a small and very sharp Needle, whose point aa nevertheless appear'd through the Microscope above a quarter of an inch broad, not round nor flat, but irregular and uneven; so that it seem'd to have been big enough to have afforded a hundred armed Mites room enough to be rang'd by each other without endangering the breaking one anothers necks, by being thrust off on either side. The surface of which, though appearing to the naked eye very smooth, could not nevertheless hide a multitude of holes and scratches and ruggednesses from being discover'd by the Microscope to invest it, several of which inequalities (as A, B, C, seem'd holes made by some small specks of Rust; and D some adventitious body, that stuck very close to it) were casual. All the rest that roughen the surface, were onely so many marks of the rudeness and bungling of Art. So unaccurate is it, in all its productions, even in those which seem most neat, that if examin'd with an organ more acute then that by which they were made, the more we see of their shape, the less appearance will there be of their beauty: whereas in the works of Nature, the deepest Discoveries shew us the greatest Excellencies. An evident Argument, that he that was the Author of all these things, was no other then Omnipotent; being able to include as great a variety of parts and contrivances in the yet smallest Discernable Point, as in those vaster bodies (which comparatively are called also Points) such as the Earth, Sun, or Planets. Nor need it seem strange that the Earth it self may be by Analogie call'd a Physical Point: For as its body, though now so near us as to fill our eys and fancies with a sense of the vastness of it, may by a little Distance, and some convenient Diminishing Glasses, be made vanish into a scarce visible Speck, or Point (as I have often try'd on the Moon, and (when not too bright) on the Sun it self.) So, could a Mechanical contrivance succesfully answer our Theory, we might see the least spot as big as the Earth it self; and Discover, as Des Cartes also conjectures (Diop. ch. 10. § 9.), as great a variety of bodies in the Moon, or Planets, as in the Earth.
But leaving these Discoveries to future Industries, we shall proceed to add one Observation more of a point commonly so call'd, that is, the mark of a full stop, or period. And for this purpose I observed many both printed ones and written; and among multitudes I found few of them more round or Schem. 2.
Fig. 3. regular then this which I have delineated in the third figure of the second Scheme, but very many abundantly more disfigur'd; and for the most part if they seem'd equally round to the eye, I found those points that had been made by a Copper-plate, and Roll-press, to be as misshapen as those which had been made with Types, the most curious and smothly engraven strokes and points, looking but as so many furrows and holes, and their printed impressions, but like smutty daubings on a matt or uneven floor with a blunt extinguisht brand or stick's end. And as for points made with a pen they were much more ragged and deformed. Nay, having view'd certain pieces of exceeding curious writing of the kind (one of which in the bredth of a two-pence compris'd the Lords prayer, the Apostles Creed, the ten Commandments, and about half a dozen verses besides of the Bible, whose lines were so small and near together, that I was unable to number them with my naked eye,) a very ordinary Microscope, I had then about me, inabled me to see that what the Writer of it had asserted was true, but withall discover'd of what pitifull bungling scribbles and scrawls it was compos'd, Arabian and China characters being almost as well shap'd, yet thus much I must say for the Man, that it was for the most part legible enough, though in some places there wanted a good fantsy well preposest to help one through. If this manner of small writing were made easie and practicable (and I think I know such a one, but have never yet made tryal of it, whereby one might be inabled to write a great deale with much ease, and accurately enough in a very little roome) it might be of very good use to convey secret Intelligence without any danger of Discovery or mistrusting. But to come again to the point. The Irregularities of it are caused by three or four coadjutors, one of which is, the uneven surface of the paper, which at best appears no smother then a very course piece of shag'd cloth, next the irregularity of the Type or Ingraving, and a third is the rough Daubing of the Printing-Ink that lies upon the instrument that makes the impression, to all which, add the variation made by the Different lights and shadows, and you may have sufficient reason to guess that a point may appear much more ugly then this, which I have here presented, which though it appear'd through the Microscope gray, like a great splatch of London dirt, about three inches over; yet to the naked eye it was black and no bigger then that in the midst of the Circle A. And could I have found Room in this Plate to have inserted an O you should have seen that the letters were not more distinct then the points of Distinction, nor a drawn circle more exactly so, then we have now shown a point to be a point.
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Observ. II. Of the Edge of a Razor.
The sharpest Edge hath the same kind of affinity to the sharpest Point in Physicks, as a line hath to a point in Mathematicks; and therefore the Treaty concerning this, may very properly be annexed to the former. A Razor doth appear to be a Body of a very neat and curious aspect, till more closely viewed by the Microscope, and there we may observe its very Edge to be of all kind of shapes, except what it should be. For examining that of a very sharp one, I could not find that any part of it had any thing of sharpness in it; but it appeared a rough surface of a very considerable bredth from side to side, the narrowest part not seeming thinner then the back of a pretty thick Knife. Nor is't likely that it should appear any otherwise, since as we just now shew'd that a point appear'd a circle, 'tis rational a line should be a parallelogram.
Now for the drawing this second Figure (which represents a part of the Edge about half a quarter of an inch long of a Razor well set) I so plac'd it between the Object-glass & the light, that there appear'd a reflection from the very Edge, represented by the white line abcdef. In which you may perceive it to be somewhat sharper then elsewhere about d, to be indented or pitted about b, to be broader and thicker about c, and unequal and rugged about e, and pretty even between ab and ef. Nor was that part of the Edge ghik so smooth as one would imagine so smooth bodies as a Hone and Oyl should leave it; for besides those multitudes of scratches, which appear to have raz'd the surface ghik, and to cross each other every way which are not half of them exprest in the Figure, there were several great and deep scratches, or furrows, such as gh and ik, which made the surface yet more rugged, caus'd perhaps by some small Dust casually falling on the Hone, or some harder or more flinty part of the Hone it self. The other part of the Razor ll, which is polish'd on a grinding-stone, appear'd much rougher then the other, looking almost like a plow'd field, with many parallels, ridges, and furrows, and a cloddy, as 'twere, or an uneven surface: nor shall we wonder at the roughnesses of those surfaces, since even in the most curious wrought Glasses for Microscopes, and other Optical uses, I have, when the Sun has shone well on them, discover'd their surface to be variously raz'd or scratched, and to consist of an infinite of small broken surfaces, which reflect the light of very various and differing colours. And indeed it seems impossible by Art to cut the surface of any hard and brittle body smooth, since Putte, or even the most curious Powder that can be made use of, to polish such a body, must consist of little hard rough particles, and each of them must cut its way, and consequently leave some kind of gutter or furrow behind it. And though Nature does seem to do it very readily in all kinds of fluid bodies, yet perhaps future observators may discover even these also rugged; it being very probable, as I elsewhere shew, that fluid bodies are made up of small solid particles variously and strongly mov'd, and may find reason to think there is scarce a surface in rerum naturâ perfectly smooth. The black spot mn, I ghess to be some small speck of rust, for that I have oft observ'd to be the manner of the working of Corrosive Juyces. To conclude, this Edge and piece of a Razor, if it had been really such as it appear'd through the Microscope, would scarcely have serv'd to cleave wood, much less to have cut off the hair of beards, unless it were after the manner that Lucian merrily relates Charon to have made use of, when with a Carpenters Axe he chop'd off the beard of a sage Philosopher, whose gravity he very cautiously fear'd would indanger the oversetting of his Wherry.
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To make small shot of different sizes; Communicated by his Highness P.R.
Take Lead out of the Pig what quantity you please, melt it down, stir and clear it with an iron Ladle, gathering together the blackish parts that swim at top like scum, and when you see the colour of the clear Lead to be greenish, but no sooner, strew upon it Auripigmentum powdered according to the quantity of Lead, about as much as will lye upon a half Crown piece will serve for eighteen or twenty pound weight of some sorts of Lead; others will require more, or less. After the Auripigmentum is put in, stir the Lead well, and the Auripigmentum will flame: when the flame is over, take out some of the Lead in a Ladle having a lip or notch in the brim for convenient pouring out of the Lead, and being well warmed amongst the melted Lead, and with a stick make some single drops of Lead trickle out of the Ladle into water in a Glass, which if they fall to be round and without tails, there is Auripigmentum enough put in, and the temper of the heat is right, otherwise put in more. Then lay two bars of Iron (or some more proper Iron-tool made on purpose) upon a Pail of water, and place upon them a round Plate of Copper, of the size and figure of an ordinary large Pewter or Silver Trencher, the hollow whereof is to be about three inches over, the bottom lower then the brims about half an inch, pierced with thirty, forty, or more small holes; the smaller the holes are, the smaller the shot will be; and the brim is to be thicker then the bottom, to conserve the heat the better.
The bottom of the Trencher being some four inches distant from the water in the Pail, lay upon it some burning Coles, to keep the Lead melted upon it. Then with the hot Ladle take Lead off the Pot where it stands melted, and pour it softly upon the burning Coles over the bottom of the Trencher, and it will immediately run through the holes into the water in small round drops. Thus pour on new Lead still as fast as it runs through the Trencher till all be done; blowing now and then the Coles with hand-Bellows, when the Lead in the Trencher cools so as to stop from running.
While one pours on the Lead, another must, with another Ladle, thrusted four or five inches under water in the Pail, catch from time to time some of the shot, as it drops down, to see the size of it, and whether there be any faults in it. The greatest care is to keep the Lead upon the Trencher in the right degree of heat; if it be too cool, it will not run through the Trencher, though it stand melted upon it; and this is to be helped by blowing the Coals a little, or pouring on new Lead that is hotter: but the cooler the Lead, the larger the Shot; and the hotter, the smaller; when it it too hot, the drops will crack and fly; then you must stop pouring on new Lead, and let it cool; and so long as you observe the right temper of the heat, the Lead will constantly drop into very round Shot, without so much as one with a tail in many pounds.
When all is done, take your Shot out of the Pail of water, and put it in a Frying-pan over the fire to dry them, which must be done warily, still shaking them that they melt not; and when they are dry you may separate the small from the great, in Pearl Sives made of Copper or Lattin let into one another, into as many sizes at you please. But if you would have your Shot larger then the Trencher makes them, you may do it with a Stick, making them trickle out of the Ladle, as hath been said.
If the Trencher be but toucht a very little when the Lead stops from going through it, and be not too cool, it will drop again, but it it better not to touch it at all. At the melting of the Lead take care that there be no kind of Oyl, Grease, or the like, upon the Pots, or Ladles, or Trencher.
The Chief cause of this Globular Figure of the Shot, seems to be the Auripigmentum; for, as soon as it is put in among the melted Lead, it loses its shining brightness, contracting instantly a grayish film or skin upon it, when you scum it to make it clean with the Ladle. So that when the Air comes at the falling drop of the melted Lead, that skin constricts them every where equally: but upon what account, and whether this be the true cause, is left to further disquisition.
Much after this same manner, when the Air is exceeding cold through which it passes; do we find the drops of Rain, falling from the Clouds, congealed into round Hail-stones by the freezing Ambient.
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Observ. LIII. Of a Flea.
The strength and beauty of this small creature, had it no other relation at all to man, would deserve a description.
For its strength, the Microscope is able to make no greater discoveries of it then the naked eye, but onely the curious contrivance of its leggs and joints, for the exerting that strength, is very plainly manifested, such as no other creature, I have yet observ'd, has any thing like it; for the joints of it are so adapted, that he can, as 'twere, fold them short one within another, and suddenly stretch, or spring them Schem. 34. out to their whole length, that is, of the fore-leggs, the part A, of the 34. Scheme, lies within B, and B within C, parallel to, or side by side each other; but the parts of the two next, lie quite contrary, that is, D without E, and E without F, but parallel also; but the parts of the hinder leggs, G, H and I, bend one within another, like the parts of a double jointed Ruler, or like the foot, legg and thigh of a man; these six leggs he clitches up altogether, and when he leaps, springs them all out, and thereby exerts his whole strength at once.
But, as for the beauty of it, the Microscope manifests it to be all over adorn'd with a curiously polish'd suit of sable Armour, neatly jointed, and beset with multitudes of sharp pinns, shap'd almost like Porcupine's Quills, or bright conical Steel-bodkins; the head is on either side beautify'd with a quick and round black eye K, behind each of which also appears a small cavity, L, in which he seems to move to and fro a certain thin film beset with many small transparent hairs, which probably may be his ears; in the forepart of his head, between the two fore-leggs, he has two small long jointed feelers, or rather smellers, MM, which have four joints, and are hairy, like those of several other creatures; between these, it has a small proboscis, or probe, NNO, that seems to consist of a tube NN, and a tongue or sucker O, which I have perceiv'd him to slip in and out. Besides these, it has also two chaps or biters PP, which are somewhat like those of an Ant, but I could not perceive them tooth'd; these were shap'd very like the blades of a pair of round top'd Scizers, and were opened and shut just after the same manner; with these Instruments does this little busie Creature bite and pierce the skin, and suck out the blood of an Animal, leaving the skin inflamed with a small round red spot. These parts are very difficult to be discovered, because, for the most part, they lye covered between the fore-legs. There are many other particulars, which, being more obvious, and affording no great matter of information, I shall pass by, and refer the Reader to the Figure.
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Observ. XX. Of blue Mould, and of the first Principles of Vegetation arising from Putrefaction.
The Blue and White and several kinds of hairy mouldy spots, which are observable upon divers kinds of putrify'd bodies, whether Animal substances, or Vegetable, such as the skin, raw or dress'd, flesh, bloud, humours, milk, green Cheese, &c. or rotten sappy Wood, or Herbs, Leaves, Barks, Roots, &c. of Plants, are all of them nothing else but several kinds of small and variously figur'd Mushroms, which, from convenient materials in those putrifying bodies, are, by the concurrent heat of the Air, excited to a certain kind of vegetation, which will not be unworthy our more serious speculation and examination, as I shall by and by shew. But, first, I must premise a short description of this Specimen, which I have added of this Tribe, in the first Figure of the XII. Scheme, which is nothing else but the appearance of a small white spot of hairy mould, multitudes of which I found to bespeck & whiten over the red covers of a small book, which, it seems, were of Sheeps skin, that being more apt to gather mould, even in a dry and clean room, then other leathers. These spots appear'd, through a good Microscope, to be a very pretty shap'd Vegetative body, which, from almost the same part of the Leather, shot out multitudes of small long cylindrical and transparent stalks, not exactly streight, but a little bended with the weight of a round and white knob that grew on the top of each of them; many of these knobs I observ'd to be very round, and of a smooth surface, such as A, A, &c. others smooth likewise, but a little oblong, as B; several of them a little broken, or cloven with chops at the top, as C; others flitter'd as 'twere, or flown all to pieces, as D, D. The whole substance of these pretty bodies was of a very tender constitution, much like the substance of the softer kind of common white Mushroms, for by touching them with a Pin, I found them to be brused and torn; they seem'd each of them to have a distinct root of their own; for though they grew neer together in a cluster, yet I could perceive each stem to rise out of a distinct part or pore of the Leather; some of these were small and short, as seeming to have been but newly sprung up, of these the balls were for the most part round, others were bigger, and taller, as being perhaps of a longer growth, and of these, for the most part, the heads were broken, and some much wasted, as E; what these heads contain'd I could not perceive; whether they were knobs and flowers, or seed cases, I am not able to say, but they seem'd most likely to be of the same nature with those that grow on Mushroms, which they did, some of them, not a little resemble.

An Englishman visits America’s major cities in 1834

Extracts from: A JOURNEY TO AMERICA IN 1834, BY ROBERT HEYWOOD OF THE PIKE, BOLTON, PRIVATELY PRINTED, 1919, One hundred copies printed for the Editor by J. B. Peace, M.A. at the University Press Cambridge. October, 1919.

SUNDAY, JUNE 8TH.
A delightful morning; found the anchor had been let down about half past six. A fine view of Staten Island. The pilot says we are about 14 miles off the quarantine—got Mr. Grindrod to inform my friends per the Royal William, Londonderry, bound to Liverpool, that I had arrived safe.
Many porpoises seen inside the Hook. So calm that we have to anchor to stem the tide. Mr. Bassnett very ill; about two, became delirious. Saw a steam boat I proposed joining at the expense, but Mr. Seaton seemed to think it could not be done without offending the Captain. I ventured to mention it to him, mentioning Mr. B.'s illness. He said he could have no objection and would join us. The flag was hoisted, but either he was previously engaged or refused to assist us. Got into the boat hanging on the side of our ship and observed upwards of 40 sail on each side of us. As we come close to the shore the cow lows. Many porpoises. Got on shore at Staten Island at seven o'clock; stept across the Hercules, an immense steamer; the land quite strange to my feet, the air quite fragrant and the grass delightfully green; a large vine with much bloom. Took tea with fifteen others, very good bread and butter, also turnips, radishes, and strawberry preserves. Walked out and saw many fire-flies and heard all sorts of noises from grasshoppers, frogs, etc. Went to the hospital for a doctor to attend Mr. B.

MONDAY, JUNE 9TH.
Passed a pleasant night, rose soon after six, a most brilliant morning. Called upon poor Bassnett, found him very ill, had slept only two hours, but thought this caused by a powerful medicine. On walking or still more on standing still, I feel as it were the motion of the ship.
Plenty of wood for fires, also many of the houses built with shingles.
Took a boat to fetch our foul linen to be washed at the hospital washhouse. Only four-wheel carriages. Large dragon-flies. 95 degrees in the shade. A couple of oxen drawing a cart. Paid 12½ cents for washing the clothes, 17 articles. For one day's entertainment at the Nautilus Hotel, 1 dol. 75c. Took part of a most delicious cyder, also a plate of strawberries. Found the helm of the steamboat worked ahead, instead of at the stern. A fine pineapple 37 cents. Hair cut 25 cents. Called upon Francis Hall on account of Mr. Grindrod.
At Bunker's Hotel all black waiters, the charges the same, whether one attends the meals or not. Set off to call upon Thomas Dean; found him ill of the erysipelas and Mrs. D. just going into the straw. Complained of business being very bad and likely to be so for the next two months. Rent of the house 500 dollars. Missed my way on my return by taking the wrong turn in Broadway, so that on enquiring I was 2½ miles from the Hotel. On getting in, found the table set out, partook of a little ham, and went to bed, pretty well tired. T. D. cautioned me against over exertion.

TUESDAY, JUNE 10TH.
Rested very well though I had some fear at the beginning of the night. I also awoke, found myself very warm and feared I had done too much. However soon fell asleep. Rose soon after six—another brilliant morning.
Orders are communicated to the servants by signal bells. At half past seven a gong sounded, the same repeated at eight, the latter being the signal for breakfast. A long table with bread, all sorts of fish, meat, cakes, strawberries, attended by eight black waiters. Called upon T. Dean and he very kindly assisted in getting my portmanteau, and also in exchanging my dollars which are at par or 4s. 6d. making 2¾ in my favour. Went to the auction and am told that the greatest part of British goods are disposed of in this way; when once advertised they must be sold as people will not lose their time in inspection; all depends on the scarcity with regard to pieces, therefore requires great care in watching the turns of the market. Took a glass of soda-water made palatable with sweet lemon juice. Arranged matters in my portmanteau. Dined with upwards of 70 persons of both sexes. All sorts of meat cooked in all ways; the peas sweetened as in Italy. Dessert chiefly oranges and strawberries.
Strolled by Broadway, examined the two churches, also the City Hall. Attended one of the courts trying a ship insurance case; conducted like those in England excepting that there are no gowns or wigs. The Judge also in plain clothes but addressed as His Honour; the witnesses are sworn as with us, standing near the Judge and the Jury 13. Coming out of the Court it began to rain a little, afterwards a good deal of lightning with some thunder.

WEDNESDAY, JUNE 11TH.
Rose at six; found the air cooler and very refreshing. Walked down to the shore, saw the Philadelphia packet off. Immense quantity of wood put under the boiler. Bathed in the floating bath, not very tidy. Just in time for a most sumptuous breakfast. Sailed to Staten Island; had a most delightful walk to Factoryville; a pleasant breeze. Very large cherry trees. Found Ward in humble circumstances, a shoemaker; built a house costing 650 dollars, let the upper part for 100 dollars and occupied the base himself with a second wife, his former wife and child being dead.
Found Mr. Bassnett improving. Expect to see him again in Buffalo. Called upon T. D. and found 400 dollars in 5's, 10's with particulars as to their legal tender, etc., by Mr. Bliss. Then dined and afterwards called upon Robert Wood at Franklin Square; promised to see him on my return. Then proceeded to Dr. Griscome, 110 Henry St. but did not find him; mentioned that I purposed calling upon my return. Bought beautiful oranges at ½d., also a pine for 10d. Then called at the American Hotel, found Jackson who insisted on my taking a glass of wine with him. Mr. Webster and Captain Kenney both very civil. After tea, walked up and down Broadway; into two booksellers' shops where some books were sold very low. Paid my bill and got everything nicely packed up, managed to put all into my portmanteau excepting two coats which I put into the bag.

THURSDAY, JUNE 12TH.
Got up a little before six, a fine morning. Left in the People's line of Packet at seven. Paid for breakfast ticket 50 cents, also to Princeton 150 cents. Most of the houses on Staten Island are built by fishermen who take large quantities of oysters. The grass is cut and placed upon stakes to prevent it being washed or blown away, as it cannot be carted away till frost comes.
Met with a gentleman, Lieutenant Higby, on the steamer returning from Charleston who showed me great attention, also presented me with a stick of orange wood. On leaving the steamer the road was so steep that but for an elderly lady who seemed so composed I should have been frightened. On the road, a field or two was cleared, the rest was forest, till on reaching Princeton the farms appeared larger. Here I engaged a gig for 150 cents. Curious sound occasioned by locusts, 17 years since their last visit. Saw a beautiful white cottage which proved to be the residence of our friend W. B.; found all well. W. was quite astonished to see me and threw his head upon my shoulders. Mrs. B. greatly surprised, also Jonathan whom we found in the fields. On going to the door I saw the driver had tumbled down the bag and portmanteau, and set off without asking for anything for himself or the turnpike gate. Walked about in the garden, then took some coffee and lettuce. Walked round the farm about 150 acres which cost him about 7 guineas an acre. The soil good and well cultivated with rye, oats, maize, and bounded on one side by a good road leading to Trenton, and the remainder by a beautiful stream; also good spring water in most of the fields. The estate is beautifully varied by gentle elevations; never troubled by mosquitoes; most of the snakes have been destroyed. They have five horses, 7 cows, 30 pigs, 100 poultry besides pigeons, etc. Very glad to find the B.'s so comfortably settled and steadily applying themselves to the improvement of the farm; very careful, exceedingly diligent, rising at four and working till eight, doing all the carpenter's work, butchering, etc. Stopt up till after eleven talking over old matters, etc.
FRIDAY, JUNE 13TH.
Slept very well till just before six. Found all busy and breakfast set out, ham, eggs and coffee. Could not get away till I promised to visit them again on my return to N.Y. Driven to Trenton. At twelve I took the steamer down the Delaware to Philadelphia. Several floats of timber on the river, 36 yards long, 6 broad and 6 planks deep. A pleasant sail and view of Philadelphia. Paid 25 cents to one of the Rail line porters. Found Head's Hotel, Mansion House, rather less expensive than Bunker's. After dinner set off with C. D.'s parcel to Ridings in 13 St. a long way. Rain came on, I borrowed an umbrella from an entire stranger, who waited until my return and then accompanied me to Mr. Hulme's. Mr. H. not in, and agreed to call at nine to-morrow morning. Very good coffee that refreshed me. Went to the theatre, spacious and handsome, with gilt pillars. Not one in the pit when I entered. The performers tolerable; the pit seats rise very much. Though twelve o'clock I found the table set out at the hotel, got a little ham and went to bed. The streets all in right lines, but many of the houses of irregular height. A great deal of marble used in the cellar steps of inferior houses. At dinner had only some boiled mutton and peas which I found very good, also a little tart and some strawberries. I think of declining to take wine and I am advised to try cyder, but find it not good, physicy. Took coffee instead of tea, and found it excellent. Two blacks employed in driving away the flies that are getting numerous. A mocking bird that sings most of the night.

SATURDAY, JUNE 14TH.
Rose half past six. A delightful morning after the rain. Had a walk down street before breakfast.
The horses are protected from flies by netting or thongs. Called upon Mr. Hulme and met with a very gracious reception. After showing me through the lower part of the house and the curious filtering machine, also the mode of getting the water cool, he walked with me to the Mint, where I saw the bar of silver gradually lengthened out, then punched and then put into a machine to letter the edge, then placed under the die and then very quickly ejected in a complete coin. Also a curious process of extracting gold from silver; it only appeared like a dirty sort of revolving vessel, much like a milk basin and the man said its value[29] exceeded 6000 dollars. Thence we went to a saw mill, with machines that planed and grooved the boards leaving them quite ready for laying down. Thence to the water works where the river Schuylkill forces up its own water (rather reddish) into three large reservoirs. Then descended, found five large water wheels at work and preparations for two others. We came back in a stage coach and were charged only 25 cents for both. Went to enquire about the Frankford stage which leaves at nine. Went into a large Quakers' meeting house—both Pilling and John Wood in town, but could not manage to meet them. Visited the Exchange, a handsome edifice built of white marble. Another balloon in the sky.
Walked towards the shipping, found much wood used though there is much coal of a kind very black and shining like pitch, and giving out heat without blaze. The evening was truly beautiful, the sky so clear that the stars seemed nearer and the moon as if it imparted heat as well as light.

SUNDAY, JUNE 15TH.
Got up a little after seven. Breakfast at half past eight; the best bread and butter in the world; good fish and eggs. Two blacks driving away the flies. All rooms gloomy, the verandahs or shutters closed to keep out the heat. Called upon Mr. Hulme and walked with him and two Miss Hulmes. A beautiful chapel of white marble with a fine range of steps and columns, the inside equally neat, the pulpit in a recess, a column on each side and an inscription over "This is life eternal." Mr. Furness preached an excellent sermon "Examine Thyself." The singing chiefly by the choir with a good organ. After service walked with Mr. H. to a neat though rather small cemetery. Afterwards called on an interesting old Scotch bachelor who came to dine with us. We spent a pleasant afternoon, went on the railroad to see the inclined plane where an accident had recently happened; walked over a very large wooden bridge covered over and supported upon stone pillars. An interesting discussion respecting Jackson, etc. Took tea and attended the evening service; the text "What is the Almighty that we should serve Him?"

MONDAY, JUNE 16TH.
Some rain had fallen in the night that made it very pleasant. Went to see about the Frankford stage, told it would be at half past eight at the Exchange. Looked over some English papers. After waiting some time found the Frankford stage left at 2nd street above High St. Found it did not go till ten. Amused myself at the wharf watching some fishermen, some of them very successful. Coming back I saw turtles some laid on their back to keep them from running away; the snapping turtle very savage, if once it lays hold, nothing but the knife can part it.
Took the stage at ten, arrived (at Frankford) half past eleven. Went to Pilling's Works but could not find Mr. P. or learn anything about my uncle. Went to other works and set off a mile further to a cotton mill, but could not find it nor enquire of anyone. A great noise from the locusts that are still said to come only once in 17 years. Killed two to present to C. D. and Mr. B.
Returned and enquired at several stores but could hear nothing of him. Then set off to see Mr. P. and on the way found his brother who keeps a store. On asking him he seemed to hesitate and went into the house to make further enquiry. He then told me that his uncle had been working at his brother's mill at Hulmesburgh; that he died about three weeks ago having scalded his leg, almost insensible towards the last. This Pilling it appears married a daughter of Abraham Walch. I knew him at first sight. They immediately set the table out and urged me to stop a day or two with them. On my declining he put on another coat and accompanied me on the way, when he disclosed to me the melancholy news of his uncle having cut his throat, then denying it and saying somebody else had done it.

TUESDAY, JUNE 17TH.
Asked for coffee a little earlier, promised in ten minutes; in less than five, fish (bass) and eggs, etc., ready. Walked up to the stage office and set off at eight; found it carrying the letters. Got to Hulmesburgh ¼ before ten, paid only 25 cents for ten miles. Walked to the works immediately, found Pilling's brother, learned the following particulars. That uncle had come from New England booking at a Croft, 18th Decr., that since he had worked very regularly not missing a day in 6 or 12 months, spent his money in drink at his lodgings, hardly ever at a public house; much respected and particularly so by P., had grown corpulent, scalded 16th Jan. and only able to work about two days since, was occupied in the dye-house and earned 67 dollars per week, half past four to half past six being a quarter of a day over. Had appeared rather depressed of late and wished to go home, still more so when he heard of my father's death. A subscription was begun among his men to pay his passage as soon as he was fit to go; this seemed to overcome him as his memory had been failing at times. On the 14th May he eat a hearty dinner, smoked his pipe, went upstairs as if to lie down for half an hour. Came out and entered the carpenter's shop, shut the door after him and immediately came out with his throat cut; was told of it by two women who happened to be going by. He denied it and walked towards the pump, a doctor was sent for but no help could be afforded and he died in less than an hour; he seemed to repent of it. I walked to the grave, attended by one of the jurors; he said every respect had been shown by a numerous attendance of his fellow-workmen—had a good coffin.

WEDNESDAY, JUNE 18TH.
About one o'clock I heard a rumbling noise, immediately a flash of lightning; this increased so much that though the shutters were closed, and I covered in bed, I could see a blaze of light which continued some time, then louder thunder, so horrible as to throw me into a perspiration, after some time it abated a little, then returned with redoubled fury with heavy rain and I think hail for nearly an hour; it was truly terrific and I was glad to learn that I had seen nearly the worst. This was admitted by Mr. W. and also the driver of the stage who did not think he had seen it worse excepting once. Mr. Walker sent over to Hulmesburgh for one of his carriages, called with my letter to Mr. Taylor, but did not meet him; then went to Mr. Hulme, agreed to go out together at half past three. On returning to the Hotel, met Mr. Jackson and also Captain Kenney; took a piece of beef and a glass of champagne with my old companions. Hastened to Mr. Hulme's; found him and three daughters waiting for me in a carriage, drove to the Penitentiary where vicious youths are endeavoured to be reclaimed by useful occupation, such as nails for sofas, cane-bottomed chairs and book-binding. Thence we visited the State prison; the cells constructed in the octagon form; all seen from the centre; a small yard attached to each to walk in for one hour a day; a sentinel placed serving the whole. Then we went to the Alms or Workhouse which is on a magnificent scale; thence to the Hospital, passed over two large bridges. Returned and took tea and spent the evening at Mr. Hulme's.

THURSDAY, JUNE 19TH.
Mr. Jackson at breakfast with an old acquaintance from Sicily. Whilst he fetched me the card, I took the opportunity of desiring the old school companion to urge upon his friend more temperance. The streets cleaned by a spray current from a large leathern pipe carried along. Set off at nine for Skoolkill (Schuylkill) to visit John Wood, but found him gone from home to a farm about three miles further to which they were removing in a day or two; only saw his son about 16 years old; enquired about his sister who was very well. Proceeded on to Maryark filled with mills worked by water from the canal; was a desert only 16 years ago. Called upon my return but only saw the same youth. On my way observed the college building by Girard's money and on getting into the city entered two of the splendid banks, also the Mayor's Court, and heard two trials, one horse-stealing and the other a lad for stealing a biscuit-cutter; both found guilty, the latter recommended to mercy on account of ill-treatment by his mother. The Judge, Mr. Keen, very clever. Thence to the Museum to look at the Mammoth, a good collection of animals, birds, etc., also some good portraits of distinguished people, amongst them Priestley and Paine. Called upon Mr. James Taylor, invited to tea as I was going so soon and intended being with Dr. Furness on Sunday. Thence to the great ship 74 by 20 yards and 20 yards high. Called again upon Ridings, also James Mason and then to Mr. Taylor's and finished at the Hulmes's—12 o'clock.

FRIDAY, JUNE 20TH.
Slept very soundly, called up exactly at 5, the steamer sailed soon after six. A vast crowd of people some to N.Y. and others to Baltimore. Took breakfast soon after seven, the steamer 50 by 19 yards. Met with Richard Crook. A very extraordinary dust over the city of Baltimore; a very great wind soon came to the steamer so that it was hardly possible to stand upon deck.
After dinner called upon a young man at Hofman's who kindly walked with me through the city. Greatly disappointed with the Cathedral, only a very plain edifice with two good pictures; charged ¼ dollar, by a zealous old Catholic who seemed shocked by the heresy of an old man who wished to go behind the altar. Then we walked to a beautiful fine column of white marble, surmounted by a large figure of Washington. Came to the Court House, better than that at Philadelphia; thence to the Exchange. From the column we had a very delightful view of the country all round. Wrote to Thos. Dean, desiring a letter or newspaper to be forwarded to Washington and again to Quebeck after two or three weeks; mentioned writing home from Washington and Boston.
Bought a large pike for 18 cents. Visited the Museum, also had music and singing and a good imitation of singing birds. Went to bed soon after ten; the bread at Baltimore very good. The horses' tails not cut in this country, being so useful in driving away the flies.

SATURDAY, JUNE 21ST.
Had a very restless night, not expecting to go to sleep and then heated and feverish, got up soon after five. This hotel six storeys high, a square of nine windows besides outbuildings, above 170 bedrooms, ours No. 76. Called with Miss Crosdale's letter to Mr. Grundy. This hotel more extensive than any. The road to Washington very hilly. Buzzards, a species of eagle soaring high in the air. Some disturbance by Indians, muskets placed in threes and fours. The soldiers and officers in curious working dress, the land generally very poor. Two other buzzards hovering over some carrion that they could smell. Arrived at Washington at two o'clock; passed the Capitol which is a splendid building. After dinner a very heavy close shower of rain with thunder; cleared up soon and the evening proved delightful. Called upon Francis Taylor who keeps an extensive book store and has also a circulating library. He seems a little, shrewd intelligent young man about 22, has been nearly seven years from home. Speaking of this country he said how a man may get on to a certainty if he exerts himself, more a matter of chance in the old country. Gadsby's Hotel very large but not so neat as Bunker's, or Head's, particularly the former; the provisions not nearly so good. Learned there were upwards of 250 rooms, our key being 102. Not feeling very well, partly occasioned by too much exertion in Philadelphia.

SUNDAY, JUNE 22ND.
Passed a very good night, not seeing the lightning which R. Crook said had been very vivid.
Francis Taylor called upon us and walked with us to the Capitol, a beautiful pile of buildings though defaced by painting. Heard a sermon Matthew vi and verse 2, in the House of Representatives, a beautiful place something like the nisi prius Court at Lancaster. Each member has his own chair with a small desk before him; this space keeps enlarging from the centre where the Speaker is placed; a large gallery behind open to the public, that on the other side for ladies.
Commenced writing a letter, being too warm to walk and there being no particular object. In the course of the afternoon the clouds began to gather, soon after six there were flashes of lightning, which continually increased with thunder, wind and rain truly astonishing. Set off alone to the Unitarian Church, R. C. nothing minding, and in fact the streams would not have suited his morocco boots. Just able to get along between every flash, found no service in consequence of the storm; managed to get safe back, and afterwards engaged in witnessing the sublime spectacle which continued till after nine; very fortunate that it came on so early as our sleep was not disturbed, but made pleasanter by the coolness of the atmosphere. The staircases to the galleries of Congress and many places covered with tobacco spitting.

MONDAY, JUNE 23RD.
Passed a comfortable night, walked out before breakfast and had a pleasant chat with F. T. During breakfast two or three boys driving away the flies by means of large ostrich feathers. Find that it is not common to sell slaves by public auction. F. T. said it was believed that if made free next winter, one third would die for want; but on mentioning St. Domingo he could make no reply, he said they were a different race of men. At ten we were taken in a coach by Mr. White, M.P. for New York, to see the President[Andrew Jackson]; waited a short time in an ante-room with others, then were ushered into a large room furnished with books and papers. A tall, straight, old, thin-faced man with grey hair rose, and on my name being mentioned he bowed and shook hands. After a little conversation about losing his teeth by attempting artificial ones, which had dragged the remainder out until only his wise teeth remained, we left him, bowing and shaking hands again. Walked into parts of the house or palace; saw a very noble room where about 1500 attend five or six times a year. Rode in the same carriage to the Capitol; and were shown into the Hall of Representatives; a great many members present but not easily heard in consequence of the muttering in the House. Thence walked through the Dome containing several pictures, the Declaration of Independence, Surrender of Burgoyne and Cornwallis, and Washington giving up his Commission. Thence went to the Senate; was introduced to Mr. Clay who could not tell me respecting R. Monks, as the cholera had made terrible ravages last year at Lexington.

TUESDAY, JUNE 24TH.
Got up ¼ before 5. Left Washington at ¼ before 6. Arrived at Alexandria at 7; ran into the Museum till breakfast. The bridge across the Potomack more than a mile long. Got to Mount Vernon at eleven. Very well received by means of a letter brought by R. C. from a Miss Adams of Philadelphia. Shown through the house, saw the key of the Bastille presented to Washington by T. Paine, also the Library as left by W. Then visited the Tomb, a very plain brick front with an iron door more like an oven. Walked through the garden back to the house; partook of some cake and wine.
Some parts of the road very rough; lost our track for some time; very few people, only now and then a negro to ask. Got back just in time to dinner and escaped the rain and thunder being the 4th successive night. Learned that something interesting was going on at the Capitol, as several members were hastening to it. Found the Senate closed against the public. The Representatives' Hall very full and some interesting debates, particularly the notice respecting Lafayette's death, and also remuneration to the families of the French sufferers at Toulon.
R. C. is considered very fond of show—prefers very tight boots, yet has four or five corns on each foot. Thinks we could not do without wigs and gowns in our English Courts of Justice. Wrote to C. D. by R. Crook who will put it into the office at N.Y. Paid for the gig to Mount Vernon, 4 dollars, though the usual charge for a day is only 3. Mentioned writing home to Mr. B. from Boston. R. C. mentioned his uncle Tipping getting £5000 and not spending £500.

WEDNESDAY, JUNE 25TH.
Got up at six and walked to F. Taylor's; after breakfast enquired for a letter at the bar, then at the post office but was disappointed. Visited the Patent Office, endless variety of models of all kinds. Then to Pishey Thompson who kindly offered to go with me and also invited me to tea and to bring F. T.
Went with F. T. to the Army Office, and saw a great many likenesses of Indian Chiefs; then to the Naval Office; saw the bags containing conquered flags, and also models of ships. Thence we visited the room containing the original Declaration of American Independence; also several treaties containing the seals and signatures of George 3rd and Bonaparte, Louis Philippe, Bernadotte, etc., etc., and what was still more extraordinary, a drawer containing many gold and silver medals, with a most valuable gold snuff box studded with diamonds presented by the Emperor Alexander, valued at £1000; all these things were left open entirely to us, without any other person in the room; this I consider very wrong as leading into temptation and I predict they will soon have some plunderer, either Yankee or foreigner; on going away we expressed our surprise at the want of discretion; they said they had only missed one small gold coin. Thence I drove to the Capitol, visited both Chambers and also the Library which is beautiful and well-furnished. I saw Cobbett's works. On coming to dinner I met my old Scotch friend Rowlandson with a countryman coming out to purchase land. Went again to Congress; heard some animated debates concerning the Indian States. Spent the last evening very pleasantly at Mr. Thompson's where I had the pleasure to meet the Unitarian Minister, Mr. Paulfrey I think, also young Taylor, Mr. Rowlandson and his friend.

An English Murder Investigation in 1660

Excerpt from: LIVES OF THE MOST REMARKABLE CRIMINALS Who have been Condemned and Executed for Murder, the Highway, Housebreaking, Street Robberies, Coining or other offences Collected from Original Papers and Authentic Memoirs, and
Published in 1735, EDITED BY ARTHUR L. HAYWARD, NEW YORK, 1927

A true and perfect account of the examination, confession, trial, condemnation and execution, of JOHN PERRY, his mother and brother, for the supposed murder of WILLIAM HARRISON, Gent.

Upon Thursday, the 6th of August, 1660, William Harrison, steward to the Lady Viscount Campden, at Campden in Gloucester, being about seventy years of age, walked from Campden aforesaid to Charringworth, about two miles from thence, to receive his lady's rent; and not returning so early as formerly, his wife, Mrs. Harrison, between eight and nine o'clock in the evening, sent her servant John Perry, to meet his master on the way from Charringworth. But neither Mr. Harrison nor his servant John Perry returning that night, early the next morning Edward Harrison, William's son, went towards Charringworth to enquire after his father. On the way he met Perry coming thence, and being informed by him that he was not there, they went together to Ebrington, a village between Charringworth and Campden, where they were told by one Daniel, that Mr. Harrison called at his house the evening before, in his return from Charringworth, but stayed not. Then they went to Paxford, about half a mile from thence, where hearing nothing of Mr. Harrison, they returned towards Campden. And on the way hearing of a hat, band and a comb, taken up on the highway between Ebrington and Campden, by a poor woman then leasing [gleaning] in the field, they sought her out. With her they found the hat, band and comb, which they knew to be Mr. Harrison's; and being brought by the woman to the place where she found the same, in the highway between Ebrington and Campden, near unto a great furze-brake, they there searched for Mr. Harrison, supposing he had been murdered, the hat and the comb being hacked and cut, and the band bloody, but nothing more could there be found. The news hereof coming to Campden, so alarmed the town that the men, women and children hasted thence in multitudes to search for Mr. Harrison's supposed dead body, but all in vain.

Mrs. Harrison's fears for her husband were now much increased, and having sent her servant Perry the evening before to meet his master, and he not returning that night, caused a suspicion that he had robbed and murdered him. Thereupon the said Perry was the next day brought before a Justice of the Peace; by whom being examined concerning his master's absence, and his own staying out the night he went to meet him, gave this account of himself. That his mistress sending him to meet his master, between eight and nine o'clock in the evening, he went down Campden Field towards Charringworth about a land's length, where meeting one William Read of Campden, he acquainted him with his errand, and farther told him that as it was growing dark he was afraid to go forwards, and would therefore return and fetch his young master's horse and return with him; he went to Mr. Harrison's court gate, where they parted. He stayed till one Pierce coming by, he went again with him about a bow's shot into the fields, and returned with him likewise to his master's gate, where they also parted; and the said John Perry averred that he went into his master's hen-roost, where he lay about an hour, but slept not, but when the clock struck twelve, arose and went towards Charringworth, until a great mist arising, he lost his way, and so lay the rest of the night under a hedge. At break of day on Friday morning he went to Charringworth, where he enquired for his master of one Edward Plaisterer, who told him he had been with him the afternoon before, and received three-and-twenty pounds of him, but stayed not long with him. He went to William Curtis of the same town, who told him he heard his master was at his house the day before, but being not at home, did not see him. After which he said he returned homewards, it being about five o'clock in the morning, when on the way he met his master's son, with whom he went to Ebrington and Paxford, etc. Curtis being examined, affirmed what Perry had said concerning them to be true.

Perry then being asked by the Justice of Peace how he, who was afraid to go to Charringworth at nine o'clock, became so bold as to go thither at twelve, answered that at nine o'clock it was dark, but at twelve the moon shone. Being further asked why returning twice home after his mistress had sent him to meet his master, and staying until twelve of the clock, he went not into the house to know whether his master was come, before he went a third time, at that time of night to look after him, he answered that he knew his master was not at home, because he saw a light in his chamber window, which never used to be there so late when he was at home.

Yet notwithstanding this that Perry had said about staying forth that night, it was not thought fit to discharge him until further enquiry was made after Mr. Harrison, and accordingly he continued in custody at Campden, sometimes in an inn there, and sometimes in the common prison, from Saturday, August the 18th, to the Friday following; during which time he was again examined at Campden, by the aforesaid Justice of Peace, but confessed nothing more than before, nor at that time could any further discovery be made as to what was become of Mr. Harrison. But it hath been said that during his restraint at Campden he told some (who pressed him to confess what he knew concerning his master) that a tinker had killed him; and to others he said that a gentleman's servant of the neighbourhood had robbed and murdered him; and others, again, he told that he was murdered and hid in a bean-rick in Campden, where search was in vain made for him. At length he gave out that if he was again carried before the Justice, he would discover that to him which he would not do to anybody else; and thereupon he was, on Friday, August the 24th, again brought before the Justice of Peace, who first examined him. And asking him whether he would confess what had become of his master, he answered he was murdered but not by him. The Justice of Peace then telling him that if he knew him to be murdered, he knew likewise by whom he was, so he acknowledged he did, and being urged to confess what he knew concerning it, affirmed that it was his mother and brother that had murdered his master. The Justice of Peace then advised him to consider what he said, telling him that he feared he might be guilty of his master's death, and that he should not draw more innocent blood upon his head, for what he now charged his mother and brother with might cost them their lives. But he affirming he spoke nothing but the truth, and that if he were immediately to die he would justify it, the Justice desired him to declare how, and when they did it.

He then told him that ever since he came into his master's service his mother and brother had lain at him to help them to money, telling him how poor they were, and that it was in his power to relieve them by giving them notice when his master went to receive his lady's rents, for they would then waylay him and rob him. And further, he said that upon the Thursday morning, when his master went to Charringworth, going on an errand into the town, he met his brother in the street, whom he then told whither his master was going, and if he waylaid him he might have his money; and further said, that in the evening when his mistress sent him to meet his master, he met his brother in the street before his master's gate, going as he said to meet his master, and so they went together to the churchyard, about a stone's throw from Mr. Harrison's gate, where they parted. He going the footway beyond the church, they met again, and so went together the way leading to Charringworth, until they came to a gate about a bow's shot from Campden church that goes into a ground of the Lady Campden's, called the Conygree, which to those who have a key to go through the garden, is the nearest from that place to Mrs. Harrison's house. When they came near unto that gate, he (the said John Perry) said he told his brother that he believed his master was just gone into the Conygree (for it was then so dark they could not discern any man, so as to know him). But perceiving there was no way but for those who had a key through the gardens, he concluded it was his master who had gone through, and so told his brother if he followed him, he might have his money, and he in the meantime, would walk a turn in the fields. Which accordingly he did, and then followed his brother. About the middle of the Conygree, he found his master on the ground, his brother upon him, and his mother standing by. Being asked whether his master was dead, he answered, No, for that after he came to them, his master cried, Ah, rogues! Will you kill me? At which he told his brother he hoped he would not kill his master; his brother replied, Peace, peace, you're a fool; and so strangled him. Which having done, he took a bag of money out of his pocket, and threw it into his mother's lap; and then he and his brother carried his master's dead body into the garden, adjoining to the Conygree, where they consulted what to do with it, and at length agreed to throw it into the great pool by Wallington's Mill, behind the garden.

His mother and brother bid him go up to the court next the house, to hearken whether anyone was stirring, and they would throw the body into the pool; and being asked whether it was there, he said, he knew not, for that he left it in the garden, but his mother and brother said they would throw it there, and if it was not there, he knew not where it was, for that he returned no more to them, but went into the court gate, which goes into the town. He met with John Pierce with whom he went into the field, and again returned with him to his master's gate. After which he went into the hen-roost, where he lay until twelve o'clock at night, but slept not, and having, when he came from his mother and brother, brought with him his master's hat, band and comb, which he laid in the hen-roost, he carried the said hat, band and comb, and threw them after he had given them three or four cuts with his knife, in the highway, where they were after found. And being asked what he intended by so doing, he said he did it that it might be believed his master had been there robbed and murdered. And having thus disposed of his hat, band and comb, he went towards Charringworth, as hath been related.

Upon this confession and accusation, the Justice of Peace gave order for the apprehending of Joan and Richard Perry, the mother and brother of John Perry, and for searching the pool where Mr. Harrison's body was said to be thrown, which was accordingly done, but nothing of him could be found there. The Fish Pools, likewise, in Campden, were drawn and searched, but nothing could be found there either; so that some were of opinion that the body might be laid in the ruins of Campden House, burnt in the late wars, and not unfit for such a concealment, where was likewise search made, but all in vain.

On Saturday, August 25th, Joan and Richard Perry, together with John Perry, were brought before the Justice of Peace, who acquainted the said Joan and Richard with what John had lain to their charge. They denied all, with many imprecations on themselves if they were in the least guilty of anything of which they were accused, but John on the other side affirmed to their faces that he had spoken nothing but the truth and that they had murdered his master, further telling them that he could never be at quiet for them since he came into his master's service, being continually followed by them to help them to money (which they told him he might do by giving them notice when his master went to receive his lady's rents), and that meeting his brother Richard in Campden Town, the Thursday morning his master went to Charringworth, he told him whither he was going, and upon what errand; Richard confessed he met his brother that morning and spoke with him, but nothing passed between them to that purpose. Both he and his mother told John he was a villain to accuse them wrongfully, as he had done, but John on the other side affirmed that he had spoken nothing but the truth and would justify it to his death.

One remarkable circumstance happened in these prisoners' return from the Justice's house to Campden, viz., Richard Perry following a good distance behind his brother John, pulling a clout out of his pocket, dropped a ball of inkle, which one of his guard taking up, he desired him to restore it, saying it was only his wife's hair lace; but the party opening it, and finding a slip knot at the end, went and showed it unto John, who was then a good distance before and knew nothing of the dropping and taking up of this inkle. Being showed it, and asked whether he knew it, he shook his head and said, yes to his sorrow, for that was the string his brother strangled his master with. This was sworn upon the evidence at their trial.

The morrow being the Lord's day, they remained at Campden, where the minister of the place designing to speak to them, if possible to persuade them to repentance and a farther confession, they were brought to church; and in their way thither passing by Richard's house, two of his children meeting him, he took the lesser in his arm, and was leading the other in his hand, when on a sudden both their noses fell a-bleeding, which was looked upon as ominous.

Here it will be no impertinent digression to tell how the year before, Mr. Harrison had his house broken open between eleven and twelve o'clock at noon, upon Campden market-day, whilst himself and his whole family were away, a ladder being set up to a window of the second story, and an iron bar wrenched thence with a ploughshare, which was left in the room, and seven score pounds in money carried away, the authors of which robbery could never be found. After this, and not many weeks before Mr. Harrison's absence, one evening in Campden garden his servant Perry made a hideous outcry, whereas some who heard it coming in, met him running and seemingly affrighted, with a sheep-pick in his hand, to whom he told a story how he had been set upon by two men in white, with naked swords, and how he defended himself with his sheep-pick, the handle whereof was cut in two or three places, as was likewise a key in his pocket, which he said was done with one of their swords.

The passages the Justice of the Peace having before heard, and calling to mind upon Perry's confession, asked him first concerning the robbery, when his master lost seven score pounds out of his house at noon-day, whether he knew who did it? He answered, Yes, it was his brother, and being further asked, whether he was with him, he answered, No, he was at church, but that he gave him notice of the money, and told him in which room it was, and where he might have a ladder, that would reach the window; and that his brother after told him he had the money, and had buried it in his garden, and that they were at Michaelmas next to have divided it, whereupon search was made in the garden, but no money could be there found. And being further asked concerning the other passage, of his being assaulted in the garden, he confessed it was all a fiction, and that he did it having a design to rob his master, so that rogues being believed to haunt the place, when his master was robbed they might be thought to have done it.

At the next assizes, which were held in September following, John, Joan and Richard Perry had two indictments found against them, one for breaking into William Harrison's house, and robbing him of one hundred and forty pounds, in the year, 1659; the other for robbing and murdering the said William Harrison on the 16th day of August, 1660. Upon the last indictment, the judge of the assizes, Sir C. T., would not try them, because the body was not found; but they were then tried upon the other indictment for robbery, to which they pleaded not guilty. But someone whispering behind them, they soon pleaded guilty, humbly begging the benefit of his Majesty's gracious pardon and Act of Oblivion, which was granted them. But though they pleaded guilty to their indictment, being thereunto promised (as probable) by some who are unwilling to lose time and trouble the Court with their trial as the Act of Oblivion pardoned them; yet they all afterwards and at their death, denied that they were guilty of that robbery, or that they knew who did it. Yet at his assize, as several credible persons have affirmed, John Perry still persisted in his story that his mother and brother had murdered his master, and further added that they had attempted to poison him in gaol, so that he durst neither eat nor drink with them.

At the next assizes, which was held the Spring following, John, Joan and Richard Perry were by the then judge of assize, Sir B. H., tried upon the indictment of murder, and pleaded thereunto severally not guilty. And when John's confession before the Justice was proved, viva voce, by several witnesses who heard the same, he told them he was then mad and knew not what he said. The other two, Richard and Joan Perry, said they were wholly innocent of what they were accused, and that they knew nothing of Mr. Harrison's death, nor what was become of him; and Richard said that his brother had accused others as well as him of having murdered his master, which the judge bidding him prove, he said that most of those who had given evidence against him knew it, but naming none, nor did any speak to it. And so the jury found them all three guilty.

Some few days after being brought to the place of their execution, which was on Broadway Hill, in sight of Campden, the mother, who was reputed a witch and to have bewitched her sons, so that they would confess nothing while she lived, was executed first. After which, Richard being upon the ladder, professed as he had done all along that he was wholly innocent of the fact for which he was then to die, and that he knew nothing of Mr. Harrison's death, nor what was become of him, and did with great earnestness beg and beseech his brother, for the satisfaction of the whole world and for his own conscience, to declare what he knew concerning him. But he, with a dogged and surly carriage, told the people he was not obliged to confess to them; yet immediately before his death, he said he knew nothing of his master's death, nor what had become of him but they might hereafter possibly hear.

Mr. Harrison's account of his being absent two years, and of his return home, addressed to Sir Thomas Overbery, Knight

Honoured Sir,

In obedience to your commands, I give you this true account of my being carried away beyond the seas, my continuance there and return home.

On Thursday, in the afternoon, in the time of harvest, I went to Charringworth to demand rents due to my Lady Campden, at which the tenants were busy in the fields, and were late ere they came home, which occasioned my stay there till the close of the evening. I expected a considerable sum, but received only twenty-three pounds and no more. In my return home, in the narrow passages amongst Ebrington Furzes, there met me one horseman, and said, Art thou there? and I, fearing that he would have rode over me, struck his horse over the nose, whereupon he struck me with his sword several blows, and ran it into my side, while I with my little cane made my defence as well as I could. At last another came behind me, ran me in the thigh, laid hold on the collar of my doublet, and drew me to a hedge near to the place. Then came in another. They did not take away my money, but mounted me behind one of them, drew my arms about his middle, and fastened my wrists together with something that had a spring lock to it, as I conceived, by hearing it give a snap as they put it on; then they threw a great cloak over me and carried me away.

In the night, they alighted at a hayrick, which stood near unto a stone pit, by a wall side, where they took away my money. This was about two hours before day, as I heard one of them tell the other he thought it to be then. They tumbled me into the stone pit. They stayed, as I thought, about an hour at the hayrick. When they took horse again, one of them bade me come out of the pit. I answered they had my money already, and asked what they would do with me, whereupon he struck me again, drew me out, and put a great quantity of money into my pockets, and mounted me again, after the same manner. And on Friday, about sunset, they brought me to a lone house upon a heath, by a thicket of bushes, where they took me down, almost dead, being sorely bruised with the carriage of the money. When the woman of the house saw that I could neither stand nor speak, she asked them whether or no they had brought a dead man? They answered, no, but a friend that was hurt, and they were carrying me to a surgeon. She answered, if they did not make haste their friend would be dead before they could bring him to one. There they laid me on the cushions and suffered none to come into the room but a little girl. There we stayed all night, they giving me some broth and strong waters.

In the morning, very early, they mounted me as before, and on Saturday night, they brought me to a place where were two or three houses, in one of which I lay all night on cushions by their bedside. On Sunday morning they carried me from thence, and about three or four of the clock, they brought me to a place by the seaside, called Deal, where they laid me down in the ground. One of them staying by me, the other two walked a little off to meet a man, with whom they talked; and in their discourse I heard them mention seven pounds, after which they went away together, and about half an hour after returned. The man (whose name, as I after heard, was Wrenshaw) said he feared I would die before they could put me on board; then they put me into a boat, and carried me on ship-board, where my wounds were dressed.
I remained in the ship, as near as I could reckon, about six weeks, in which time I was indifferently recovered of my wounds and weaknesses. Then the master of the ship came in and told me and the rest who were in the same condition, that he discovered three Turkish ships. We all offered to fight in defence of the ship and ourselves, but he commanded us to keep close, and said he would deal with them well enough. A little while after, he called us up, and when we came on deck we saw two Turkish ships close by us; into one of them we were put, and placed in a dark hold, where how long we continued before we were landed, I know not.

When we were landed they led us two days' journey, and put us into a great house or prison, where we remained four days and a half, and then came to us eight men to view us, who seemed to be officers. They called us and examined us of our trades and callings, which everyone answered. One said he was a surgeon, another that he was a broad-cloth weaver, and I, after two or three demands, said I had some skill in physic. We three were set by, and taken by three of these eight men who came to view us. It was my chance to be chosen by a grave physician of eighty-seven years of age, who lived near to Smyrna, who had formerly been in England, and knew Crowland in Lincolnshire, which he preferred before all others in England. He employed me to keep his still-house, and gave me a silver bowl, double gilt, to drink in. My business was most in that place, but once he set me to gather cotton wool, which I not doing he struck me to the ground, and after drew his stiletto to stab me; but I holding up my hands to him, he gave me a stamp and turned from me, for which I render thanks to my Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ, who stayed his hand and preserved me.

I was there about a year and three quarters, and then my master fell sick on a Thursday, and sent for me, and calling me, as he used, by the name of Bell, told me he should die and bid me shift for myself. He died on the Saturday following, and I instantly hastened with my bowl to a port almost a day's journey distant, the way to which place I knew, having been twice there employed by my master about the carriage of the cotton wool. When I came thither I addressed myself to two men who came out of a ship of Hamburg, which, as they said, was bound for Portugal within three or four days. I enquired of them for an English ship, they answered there was none. I entreated them to take me into their ship, but they answered they durst not, for fear of being discovered by the searchers, which might occasion the forfeiture, not only of their goods, but also of their lives. I was very importunate with them, but could not prevail. They left me to wait on Providence, which at length brought me another out of the same ship, to whom I made known my condition, craving his assistance for my transportation. He made me the like answer as the former, and was as stiff in his denial, until the sight of my bowl put him to pause. He returned to the ship, and after an hour's space came back again accompanied with another seaman, and for my bowl, undertook to transport me; but he told me I must be contented to lie down in the keel and endure much hardship, which I was content to do to gain my liberty.

So they took me on board, and placed me below in the vessel, in a very uneasy place, and obscured me with boards and other things, where I lay undiscovered, notwithstanding the strict search that was made in the vessel. My two chapmen who had my bowl, honestly furnished me with victuals daily, until we arrived at Lisbon in Portugal, where, as soon as the master had left the ship and was gone into the city, they set me on shore moneyless, to shift for myself. I knew not what course to take, but as Providence led me, I went up into the city, and came into a fair street, and being weary I turned my back to a wall, and leaned upon my staff. Over against me were four gentlemen discoursing together; after a while one of them came to me, and spake to me in a language that I understood not. I told him I was an Englishman and understood not what he spoke. He answered me in plain English, that he understood me, and was himself born in Wisbech, in Lincolnshire. Then I related to him my sad condition, and he taking compassion on me, took me with him, provided me with lodging and diet, and by his interest with a master of a ship bound for England, procured my passage; and bringing me on ship board, he bestowed wine and strong waters on me, and at his return gave me eight stivers and commended me to the care of the master of the ship, who landed me safe at Dover. From thence I made a shift to get to London, where being furnished with necessaries I came into the country.

Thus, honoured Sir, I have given you a true account of my great sufferings and happy deliverance by the mercy and goodness of God, my most gracious Father in Jesus Christ, my Saviour and Redeemer, to whose name be ascribed all honour, praise and glory. I conclude and rest,

Your Worship's,
In all dutiful respect,
William Harrison

Before I part with this story, it is proper for me to remark that though it does not contain any extraordinary mark of the wisdom of Providence, yet being in its nature strange and hitherto having escaped any other collection, I thought it not improper to be preserved here, since some of the circumstances are of such a nature as not to be paralleled in any English story.

American Independence

On a bright, sunny, but cool 4th of July in 1776, the Declaration of Independence was ratified by the Second Continental Congress at Independence Hall in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Contrary to popular belief, the Declaration of Independence was only signed by John Hancock, president of the Congress, on that day. The other men did not actually sign a copy on that day. John Dunlap printed over 100 copies of the Declaration. These prints are now called "Dunlap Broadsides." Twenty-four copies are known to exist, two of which are in the Library of Congress. One of these was Washington's personal copy.

On July 5th, John Hancock, President of the Continental Congress, dispatched the first of Dunlap's broadsides of the Declaration of Independence to the legislatures of New Jersey and Delaware. The Pennsylvania Evening Post of 6 July printed the first newspaper rendition of the Declaration of Independence. This was followed on July 8th by the first public reading of the Declaration in Philadelphia. On July 9th, one week after the British fleet arrives at New York, George Washington orders that the Declaration of Independence be read before the American army -- from his personal copy of the "Dunlap Broadside."

On July 19th, Congress ordered that the Declaration be engrossed on parchment with a new title, "the unanimous declaration of the thirteen united states of America," and "that the same, when engrossed, be signed by every member of Congress." Engrossing is the process of copying an official document in a large hand. The engrosser of the Declaration was probably Timothy Matlock, an assistant to Charles Thomson, secretary to the Congress.


On August 2nd, John Hancock, the President of the Congress, signed the engrossed copy with a bold signature. The other delegates, following custom, signed beginning at the right with the signatures arranged by states from northernmost New Hampshire to southernmost Georgia. Although all delegates were not present on August 2nd, 56 delegates eventually signed the document. Late signers were Elbridge Gerry, Oliver Wolcott, Lewis Morris, Thomas McKean, and Matthew Thornton, who was unable to place his signature with the other New Hampshire delegates due to a lack of space. Some delegates, including Robert R. Livingston of New York, a member of the drafting committee, never signed the Declaration.

* * *
In Congress, July 4 1776

The unanimous Declaration of the thirteen united States of America

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation.

We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.—That to secure these rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed.—That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it; and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such principles and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath shown, that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same Object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security.—Such has been the patient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former Systems of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world.

He has refused his Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public good.

He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them.

He has refused to pass other Laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only.

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures.

He has dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people.

He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have returned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and convulsions within.

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturalization of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of Lands.

He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers.

He has made Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries.

He has erected a multitude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harass our people, and eat out their substance.

He has kept among us, in times of peace, Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures.

He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to the Civil power.

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his Assent to their acts of pretended legislation:

For Quartering large bodies of armed troops among us:

For protecting them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the Inhabitants of these States:

For cutting off our Trade with all parts of the world:

For imposing Taxes on us without our Consent:

For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits of Trial by Jury:

For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for pretended offences:

For abolishing the free System of English Laws in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary government, and enlarging its Boundaries so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these Colonies:

For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our Governments:

For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever.

He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Protection and waging War against us.

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the Lives of our people.

He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of a civilized nation.

He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to become the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall themselves by their Hands.

He has excited domestic insurrections amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions.

In every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free People.

Nor have We been wanting in attention to our British brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably interrupt our connections and correspondence.
They too have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.—

WE, THEREFORE, the REPRESENTATIVES of the UNITED STATES of AMERICA, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be FREE AND INDEPENDENT STATES; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right do.—And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.

Signed by ORDER and in BEHALF of the CONGRESS,

JOHN HANCOCK, PRESIDENT.

ATTEST.
CHARLES THOMSON, SECRETARY.

PHILADELPHIA: PRINTED BY JOHN DUNLAP.